glass beakers and the properties of borosilicate glass.

1. Glass Beakers:

   • Glass beakers are commonly used in laboratories for various purposes. Here are some key points about them:
     • Material: Glass beakers are typically made of borosilicate glass, which is known for its heat resistance and durability.
     • Sizes: They come in various sizes, ranging from 50 mL to 1000 mL.
     • Functions:
       • Heating Liquids: Glass beakers are ideal for heating liquids using Bunsen burners.
       • Volume Measurement: They are used for accurately measuring the volume of liquids.
     • Advantages: Their heat resistance and durability make them suitable for laboratory work.

2. Borosilicate Glass:

   • Properties:
     • Low Thermal Expansion: Pure borosilicate glass has a low thermal expansion coefficient (at least 3.2 x 10^-6 1/K), making it highly resistant to temperature changes. It maintains integrity even when rapidly transitioning from cold to hot environments (e.g., from a refrigerator to an oven).
     • High Material Strength: Compared to similar glassware, borosilicate glass can withstand blunt force impact better.
     • Chemical Stability: It resists corrosion and breaking when exposed to acidic environments.
   • Production and Processing:
     • Borosilicate glass is produced by melting silica sand, boric oxide, potassium oxide, zinc oxide, and trace amounts of calcium oxide and aluminum oxide.
     • The melting process requires high temperatures due to the material’s transition temperature of up to 560°C.
   • Applications:
     • Laboratory Glassware: Borosilicate glass serves as the base material for laboratory equipment such as beakers, test tubes, and glass pipettes due to its chemical and thermal stability.
     • Cookware and Kitchen Implements: It is also used in cookware and kitchen utensils.
     • Pharmaceutical Containers: Borosilicate glass is used for manufacturing pharmaceutical containers like syringes, cartridges, vials, and ampoules because of its chemical inertness when in contact with liquid medications.